Publications – Ocean Equity Research

Is small really small? Re-characterising tuna fisheries in the Indian Ocean

Sunnefa Yeatman Ómarsdóttir — Mon, 26 Jan 2026 23:08:15 +0000

Publication Details

Abstract

Small-scale fisheries (SSF) play a critical role in providing food security, livelihood, and employment. However, SSF have received less attention in the context of regional fisheries management and continue to be poorly understood and not well included in fishery management frameworks. The lack of understanding concerning SSF within regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs) might be further exacerbated by the absence of a unified definition of SSF within RFMOs, which often undermines data collection and the general availability of information on SSF. This paper aims to trace SSF definitions within RFMO convention texts and conservation and management measures, and to develop a definition of SSF for the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, which would result in a more nuanced characterisation of fishery types. The results showed that all RFMOs lack an official definition, although SSF are mentioned in various conservation and management measures. To respond to this gap, we propose a definition of SSF, based on the overall size of the fishing vessel (<12m or 10 gross tonnage), the location of the fishing ground (e.g., within the territorial sea and exclusive economic zone), crew size (not more than 12), and the duration of the fishing trip (no more than 2 weeks). Furthermore, besides the current two fishery types, SSF and industrial, we suggest a third type – semi-industrial fisheries. This would help RFMOs close loopholes arising from the absence of a unified SSF definition, which currently enables some large-scale vessels to qualify for exemptions and protections intended for genuine SSF. Proposing a more realistic operational classification of fishery types within RFMOs would strengthen data reporting and monitoring and would lead to a more sustainable and equitable fisheries management regime.

Read Paper Here:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479726001775

A 45-year retrospective of the European Union’s fishing access agreements with coastal States of the Global South

Sunnefa Yeatman Ómarsdóttir — Sun, 11 Jan 2026 23:32:40 +0000

Publication Details

Frédéric Le Manach, Théophile Froment, Mialy Andriamahefazafy, Liam Campling, Bianca Haas & Daniel J. Skerritt

Abstract

Since the end of the 1970s, the European Union (EU) has formalized and developed its member States’ longstanding and significant presence in the waters of developing coastal States through fishing access agreements. This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of the change in scope and scale of these agreements since their inception 45 years ago. Facilitated by the EU’s relatively high levels of transparency, we use data from legal texts and vessel authorizations to examine trends in species targeted, financial allocations, and geopolitical dynamics. We show that these agreements have shifted from targeting diverse species to focusing predominantly on tuna. However, we also show that a minor fraction of the EU’s fleet engaged in these agreements benefited from a disproportionate share of public subsidies, as small pelagic fisheries indeed accounted for 63.9% of the overall EUR 4.8 B allocated, while they only accounted for 7.6% of the fishing capacity (in tonnage). As of January 2025, the number of active agreements has declined to nine, reflecting shifting geopolitical and economic interests. EU fishing access agreements illustrate ongoing tensions between economic interests, resource sustainability, and equity. Future agreements will have to balance support to the EU’s distant-water fleet with fairer, more cooperative arrangements to ensure equity and long-term sustainability. This paper provides a clear historical overview of the change in EU access agreements over time to support future analyses comparing the relative merits of different approaches to access arrangements for both resource seekers and owners.

Read Paper Here:

https://www.nature.com/articles/s44183-025-00149-y

Capacity Building and Transfer of Marine Technology under the BBNJ Agreement: Key considerations for SIDS (Information Paper) #4

Sunnefa Yeatman Ómarsdóttir — Sun, 21 Dec 2025 23:32:18 +0000

Publication Details

Raguain, J., Eck, K., Pouponneau, A. (2025). Opportunities and Challenges for SIDS to Shape and Advance the BBNJ Agreement’s Funding Through and Beyond its Financial Mechanism. Report for the Australian National Centre for Ocean Resources and Security, University of Wollongong. 13 May 2025.

Executive Summary

Small Island Developing States (SIDS) face significant challenges due to their unique vulnerabilities and dependence on ocean resources. To fully participate in the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity under the 2023 Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ Agreement), SIDS require targeted capacity-building, financial support, and technology transfer. These needs arise from their limited financial, technological, and human resources, as well as their deep cultural, economic, and ecological connections to the ocean and areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ).

The Agreement establishes a framework for Capacity Building and Transfer of Marine Technology (CB&TMT), incorporating mechanisms for information exchange, decision-making, and funding. It underscores the importance of international cooperation, financing, and partnerships to strengthen SIDS’ marine conservation, sustainable resource use, and scientific capacity, while acknowledging SIDS’ specific circumstances.

As the preparatory phase moves forward and the first Conference of the Parties (COP) approaches, ensuring that SIDS can actively participate in and benefit from the implementation of CB&TMT provisions is critical. Key priorities include defining practical implementation mechanisms, fostering partnerships, enhancing information-sharing platforms, and securing sustained financial support. However, challenges remain in operationalising support structures, ensuring equitable benefit-sharing, and reinforcing collaboration within and among regions. Coordinated advocacy and institutional strengthening will be essential for integrating SIDS’ priorities into global ocean governance.

This document highlights the importance of sustained, meaningful SIDS leadership in the BBNJ process to protect their rights and interests. It offers recommendations for advancing CB&TMT implementation, including clarifying the role of the Clearing-House Mechanism (CHM), establishing terms of reference for the CB&TMT Committee, securing financial resources, and developing monitoring indicators. It also identifies opportunities to advance SIDS’ interests through targeted investment, strategic policy development, and collaborative initiatives that translate the Agreement’s commitments into concrete outcomes.

Ultimately, CB&TMT can and should empower SIDS by expanding access to funding, scientific knowledge, and technology—enabling them to enhance marine biodiversity conservation, build research capacity, and improve marine monitoring and management. Active and purposeful engagement in the Preparatory Committee (PrepCom) process will be vital for SIDS to assert their leadership and drive meaningful implementation of CB&TMT under the BBNJ Agreement.

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Financing and Institutional Pathways for Effective Finance of Capacity-Building and Transfer of Marine Technology for BBNJ

Sunnefa Yeatman Ómarsdóttir — Fri, 15 Aug 2025 01:42:17 +0000

Webinar Details

This multi-regional webinar explores how we design and finance the institutional architecture necessary to deliver on Capacity-Building and Technology Transfer (CBTMT) package of the BBNJ agreement. The discussion examined the financial mechanisms behind CBTMT, the evolving role of the Clearing-House Mechanism (ClHM), and the human element that connects policy to real-world impact. This session was moderated by Ms. Kalene Eck, and speakers and panelists included Ms. Arianne Etuk Johnson, Dr. Harriet Harden-Davies, and Mr. Jeremy Raguaian.

This webinar is part of the project Capacity Building Initiative for SIDS: Early Ratification and Equitable Implementation of the BBNJ Agreement. The SIDS project is supported by the Bloomberg Ocean Initiative and Arcadia. ‘This initiative is part of a series of projects under a $10 million pledge from Bloomberg Philanthropies and nine other philanthropies to support developing nations with policy and technical capacity building assistance to accelerate ratification and early implementation of the treaty to protect biodiversity in the world’s High Seas.’

Any questions please contact Vanessa Lopes at v.p.lopes@sms.ed.ac.uk.

Watch the Webinar Here:

Opportunities and Challenges for SIDS to Shape and Advance the BBNJ Agreement’s Funding Through and Beyond its Financial Mechanism (Information Paper)

Sunnefa Yeatman Ómarsdóttir — Tue, 13 May 2025 04:10:55 +0000

Publication Details

Executive Summary

The conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction will be costly. Such costs, coupled with the funding gap for Sustainable Development Goal 14, “Life Below Water,” and the increasing uncertainty on sources and destination of funding highlight the critical importance of understanding how the BBNJ Agreement will be funded. The BBNJ Agreement establishes a financial mechanism to support its implementation, particularly for developing states, through a Special Fund and other funding vehicles. This mechanism, while innovative, faces several challenges. There are concerns about securing long-term funding for monitoring and enforcement activities, as well as the lack of clarity on financing infrastructure and data management systems. Questions remain about how to prevent duplication and ensure complementarity between the Special Fund and the GEF Trust Fund, and how to determine the basis of need for funding access. Governance issues, such as the Special Fund’s institutional arrangements and the relationship between the GEF Trust Fund and the Finance Committee, also need to be addressed.

The design of the Special Fund within the BBNJ Agreement’s financial mechanism is critical for ensuring equitable access to resources. The Special Fund aims to provide financial support that is more responsive to the unique needs of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and other states reliant on marine resources. It seeks to address historical imbalances by ensuring fair participation and benefits for developing countries. However, to achieve this, the Special Fund’s governing body must have sufficient SIDS representation, and the modalities for accessing finance should be friendly to capacity-constrained states. Careful attention to the Special Fund’s structure and operational efficiency is essential, including clarifying its relationship with the ABS mechanism and ensuring effective coordination with other committees and the Scientific and Technical Body.

To ensure the BBNJ Agreement’s financial mechanism effectively serves the implementation needs of SIDS and other developing countries, several recommendations are crucial. It is essential to ensure progress on the establishment and terms of reference of all subsidiary bodies, prioritize SIDS representation in these bodies, and establish a strong, collaborative framework within the GEF-BBNJ MoU. Efforts should focus on mobilizing financial resources, securing predictable funding, and providing targeted capacity-building and technical support to SIDS. Furthermore, it is vital to champion transparency and accountability, address the long-term operational costs of EIAs and ABMTs, and promote coherence and collaboration with other MEAs and international institutions.

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Be careful what you wish (fish) for: Actioning distributive equity principles when determining catch limits in transboundary fisheries

Sunnefa Yeatman Ómarsdóttir — Tue, 13 May 2025 00:17:52 +0000

Publication Details

Bianca Haas^{a b}, Rachel Nichols^{a c}, Kamal Azmi^a

^aAustralian National Centre for Ocean Resources and Security (ANCORS), University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia ^bOcean Nexus, Australian National Centre for Ocean Resources and Security (ANCORS), University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia ^cCentre for Marine Socioecology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia Received 2 March 2025, Revised 5 May 2025, Accepted 5 May 2025, Available online 10 May 2025, Version of Record 10 May 2025.

Abstract

Under the United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement, states are required to ensure that conservation and management measures do not result in a disproportionate burden for developing states when managing transboundary fishery resources. Distributive equity principles, such as the polluter pays principle, are increasingly cited in fisheries negotiations to justify the removal of burdens carried by developing states. Here, we explore how these principles might be applied in fisheries, drawing on literature on climate justice and undertaking a scenario analysis to illustrate how such principles may be operationalised in a fishery context. By using the yellowfin tuna fishery in the Indian Ocean as a case study, we demonstrate that the application of these distributive equity principles might have unintended consequences for developing countries. Overall, we suggest that a combination of different equity principles is needed to reduce disproportionate burdens.

Original Article Link

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X25001678

BBNJ Ratification process: Perspectives and experiences from SIDS (Webinar #3)

Sunnefa Yeatman Ómarsdóttir — Sun, 04 May 2025 01:35:19 +0000

Webinar Details

This session was moderated by Gemma Nelson. In this webinar Mrs. Tasha Nicole Cain showed Belize’s process of ratifying the BBNJ treaty, highlighting key steps and challenges. In addition, Ms. Elisiva Akauola spoke about how regional bodies are supporting effective treaty implementation across the Pacific region.

Webinar Link

BBNJ Ratification process: Perspectives and experiences from SIDS

Webinar Project Details

The project aims to ensure SIDS maintain a leadership role in ensuring the equitable and effective conservation of biodiversity in marine areas beyond national jurisdiction. The objective is to strengthen capacity in SIDS for (i) rapid ratification and (ii) equitable and effective implementation of the BBNJ Agreement.

Background

The newly adopted United Nations BBNJ treaty provides a crucial new framework to enable the conservation of marine biodiversity and ecosystem services in two thirds of the ocean that lie beyond national jurisdiction. It has been more than 20 years in the making, and Small Island Developing States (SIDS) have been strong proponents for an ambitious treaty to implement conservation measures and achieve equitable outcomes. There is a sense of urgency to have this new instrument to enter into force given the global biodiversity and climate change related crises. SIDS, comprising 39 states, are crucial to achieving the rapid entry into force and must maintain a leadership role in the BBNJ process to enable effective and equitable implementation of the treaty.

Focus areas:

Ratification:
1. National and regional support in (i) CARICOM and (ii) Atlantic and Indian Ocean SIDS (AIS);
2. Knowledge and information exchange across SIDS in CARICOM, AIS and Pacific regions.
Preparing for implementation:
1. Cross-regional SIDS networking and knowledge exchange including webinars and events;
2. Papers and policy briefs on technical aspects;
3. Support SIDS experts (researchers, technical experts, thought-leaders) in raising awareness, contributing to national/regional ratification processes, and strengthening capacity.

Timeframe: Dec 2023 – Dec 2025

Contacts:

Overall: Bianca Haas bhaas@uow.edu.au

Cross Regional Lead: Vanessa Lopes vplopes@su.suffolk.edu

CARICOM Lead: Nellie Catzim ncatzim@gmail.com

AIS Lead: Sheena Talma sheenatalma@gmail.com

Project hosted at ANCORS, University of Wollongong.

Funding information:

The SIDS project is supported by the Bloomberg Ocean Initiative and Arcadia.

This initiative is part of a series of projects under a $10 million pledge from Bloomberg Philanthropies and nine other philanthropies to support developing nations with policy and technical capacity building assistance to accelerate ratification and early implementation of the treaty to protect biodiversity in the world’s High Seas.

SIDS Flag States Under the BBNJ Agreement: Responsibilities, Challenges, and the way Forward (information paper)

Sunnefa Yeatman Ómarsdóttir — Fri, 11 Apr 2025 09:22:11 +0000

Publication Details

Etuk Johnson, A. (2025). SIDS Flag States under the BBNJ Agreement: Responsibilities, Challenges, and the Way Forward. Report for the Australian National Centre for Ocean Resources and Security, University of Wollongong. 11 April 2025.

Executive Summary

Small Island Developing States (SIDS) play a crucial role in the implementation of the Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ Agreement). For SIDS that also serve as flag States, this role includes ensuring vessel compliance with conservation measures in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ), such as environmental regulation enforcement, monitoring, and reporting. Further, the Agreement encourages all States Parties, including SIDS flag States, to implement tools such as Area-Based Management Tools (ABMTs), Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), and frameworks for equitable benefit-sharing of Marine Genetic Resources (MGRs), while promoting Capacity Building and Transfer of Marine Technology (CB&TMT) (United Nations, 2023; Global Environment Facility, 2024).

Despite SIDS’ commitment to the effective implementation of the BBNJ Agreement, SIDS face persistent challenges including limited financial and legal capacity, and the challenge of integrating BBNJ obligations with existing international and regional frameworks, such as the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs). Regional bodies such as the Pacific Islands Forum (PIF), the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), and the larger coalition of the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), have consistently called for increased support to help SIDS meet their commitments under the Agreement (AOSIS, 2022; Pacific Islands Forum, 2021; CARICOM, 2019). United Nations’ assessments further acknowledge these structural barriers (UN, 2014; 2021).

This paper explores the responsibilities and challenges of SIDS, particularly SIDS flag States, under the BBNJ Agreement and provides targeted recommendations in the lead-up to the first Conference of the Parties (COP), including strengthening legal frameworks, securing sustained support, and enhancing cooperation. Ratifying and aligning national legislation with the Agreement, strengthening flag State responsibilities, and leveraging CB&TMT, will be essential to moving towards compliance and implementation.

The paper also underscores the importance of engaging actively in regional and international decision-making processes, developing sustainable marine resource strategies, and enhancing monitoring, control, and surveillance capacities. Focused investment, inclusive participation, and stakeholder engagement will help ensure that SIDS continue to play a leading role and remain active and effective participants in the sustainable governance of marine biodiversity in ABNJ.

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Operationalizing the special circumstances of SIDS in the implementation of the BBNJ Agreement: A focus on institutional architecture (information paper)

Sunnefa Yeatman Ómarsdóttir — Fri, 11 Apr 2025 03:23:53 +0000

Publication Details

Frere, T. (2025). Operationalizing the special circumstances of SIDS in the implementation of the BBNJ Agreement: A focus on institutional architecture. Report for the Australian National Centre for Ocean Resources and Security, University of Wollongong. 19 March 2025.

Abstract

The Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) to conserve and sustainably use Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ Agreement) of June 2023 marks a pivotal advancement in global ocean governance, with notable participation from Small Island Developing States (SIDS). As of March 2025, the Agreement has secured 20 Parties—13 of which are SIDS—and 112 signatories. The Agreement uniquely incorporates comprehensive recognition of SIDS’ special circumstances across its framework, establishing this recognition as a guiding principle and incorporating SIDS-specific provisions throughout its four main components: Marine Genetic Resources, Area-Based Management Tools, Environmental Impact Assessments, and Capacity Building and Transfer of Marine Technology. As the Preparatory Commission advances toward the first Conference of Parties in 2025, a critical challenge for AOSIS members lies in effectively operationalizing these special circumstances provisions within the Agreement’s implementation structure. This paper examines varying approaches to SIDS recognition in international instruments and proposes pragmatic strategies for embedding SIDS considerations within the terms of reference, rules of procedure, and working modalities of the Agreement’s subsidiary bodies. Recommendations include establishing dedicated SIDS representation, incorporating SIDS-specific reporting requirements, developing specialized decision-making procedures, and creating SIDS-focused working groups—all aimed at ensuring the Agreement’s implementation framework adequately addresses the unique vulnerabilities and ocean dependencies of SIDS.

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A Pause or Moratorium for Deep Seabed Mining in the Area? The Legal Basis, Potential Pathways, and Possible Policy Implications

Sunnefa Yeatman Ómarsdóttir — Wed, 19 Mar 2025 09:36:18 +0000

Publication Details

Singh, P. A., Jaeckel, A., & Ardron, J. A. (2025). A Pause or Moratorium for Deep Seabed Mining in the Area? The Legal Basis, Potential Pathways, and Possible Policy Implications. Ocean Development & International Law, 56(1), 18–44. https://doi-org.ezproxy.uow.edu.au/10.1080/00908320.2024.2439877

Publication Abstract

The International Seabed Authority is currently negotiating regulations that will determine the future of deep seabed mining in areas beyond national jurisdiction. While some states and industry actors are interested in turning seabed mining into a reality in the near future, a sizeable number of states now support a pause or moratorium on deep seabed mining. This article examines the legal basis and potential pathways for a precautionary pause or moratorium for deep seabed mining of the international seabed “Area”, should members of the International Seabed Authority choose to do so, and discusses possible unintended policy implications that could arise therefrom.

Link to Publication

https://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy.uow.edu.au/doi/full/10.1080/00908320.2024.2439877#abstract